Pathogens

Bacteria are microscopic single-celled organisms at least 1 micron long. Most bacteria species are harmless to humans; indeed, many are beneficial (see eubacteria). But some are pathogens, including those that cause cholera, diphtheria, leprosy, plague, pneumonia, strep throat, tetanus, tuberculosis, and typhoid fever.

Viruses are tens or hundreds of times smaller than bacteria. They are not cellular, but consist of a core of genetic material surrounded by a protective coat of protein. Viruses are able to survive and reproduce only in the living cells of a host. Once a virus invades a living cell, it directs the cell to make new virus particles. These new viruses are released into the surrounding tissues, and seek out new cells to infect. The roll call of human diseases caused by viruses includes mumps, measles, influenza, rabies, hepatitis, poliomyelitis, smallpox, AIDS, and certain types of cancer.

Fungi are a varied group of generally small organisms that get their food from living or dead organic matter. They germinate from reproductive cells called spores, which often have a thick, resistant outer coat that protects against unfavorable environmental conditions. This enables spores to survive for long periods of time, which adds to the difficulty of treating fungal infections. Some fungi are external parasites of humans, causing skin conditions such as ringworm, athlete's foot, and jock itch. Other fungi invade internal tissues; examples include yeast that infect the genital tract and several fungi species that cause a type of pneumonia.

Protozoans are single-celled, animal-like organisms that live in moist environments. Perhaps the most infamous pathogenic protozoans are species of the genus Plasmodium, which cause malaria, an infectious disease responsible for over ‚Q million deaths worldwide each year. Members of the genus Trypanosoma produce trypanosomiasis, also known as African sleeping sickness, and Chagas' disease. Other protozoans cause giardiasis, leishmaniasis, and toxoplasmosis.

Parasitic flatworms include tapeworms, which live in the intestines of a host organism. They have a ribbon-like body that may be up to 9 m (30 ft) in length, depending on the species. Hooks and suckers on the head attach a tapeworm to the intestinal wall, and a tough outer coating protects against the host's digestive juices. Another group of parasitic flatworms is flukes, which are responsible for several serious tropical diseases, most notably schistosomiasis. See Parasite.

Roundworms, or nematodes, are small, tubelike worms that are pointed at both ends. Species that infect human intestines include pinworms, hookworms, threadworms, and members of the genus Ascaris. Trichinella spiralis can invade human muscle tissue, often from eating infected pork that has been improperly prepared, causing a disease called trichinosis.

Prions are extremely tiny protein particles found in the brain, nerve, and muscle cells. A controversial theory states that prions cause disease by changing normal proteins into an abnormal shape. These mutated proteins in turn force other proteins to change shape, leading to destruction of tissue, primarily in the brain. Some researchers have hypothesized that prions cause transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, a group of rare infectious diseases that includes Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans, scrapie in sheep, and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (commonly known as mad cow disease) in cattle. Some evidence suggests that prion-related disease can be transmitted through food infected with mutated proteins.

Spread of Infectious Disease

Some pathogens are spread from one person to another by direct contact. They leave the first person through body openings, mucous membranes, and skin wounds, and they enter the second person through similar channels. For example, the viruses that cause respiratory diseases such as influenza and the common cold are spread in moisture droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes. A hand that was used to cover the mouth while coughing contains viruses that may be passed to doorknobs, so that the next person to touch the doorknob has a chance of picking up the infectious agent. The bacteria that cause some sexually transmitted infections, including gonorrhea and syphilis, are transmitted during sexual contact.

Other pathogens involve an intermediary carrier, such as an insect. The malarial parasite, for example, spends part of its life cycle in mosquitoes, then enters a person's bloodstream when the mosquito bites the person. Many pathogens are spread through contaminated food and water. Cholera bacteria, for example, are spread through food and water contaminated with the excrement of infected people

Human Disease

Human Disease, in medicine, any harmful change that interferes with the normal appearance, structure, or function of the body or any of its parts. Since time immemorial, disease has played a role in the history of societies. It has affected—and been affected by—economic conditions, wars, and natural disasters. Indeed, the impact of disease can be far greater than better-known calamities. An epidemic of influenza that swept the globe in 1918 killed from 20 million to 50 million people—two to five times more deaths than were caused by World War I (1914-1918). Within a few months, more than 500,000 Americans died of the 1918 influenza known as the Spanish flu.

Diseases have diverse causes, which can be classified into two broad groups: infectious and noninfectious. Infectious diseases can spread from one person to another and are caused by microscopic organisms that invade the body. Noninfectious diseases are not communicated from person to person and do not have, or are not known to involve, infectious agents. Some diseases, such as the common cold, are acute, coming on suddenly and lasting for no more than a few weeks. Other diseases, such as arthritis, are chronic, persisting for months or years, or recurring frequently.

Every disease has certain characteristic effects on the body. Some of these effects, called symptoms and signs, include fever, inflammation, pain, fatigue, dizziness, nausea, and rashes, and are readily apparent to the patient. These symptoms offer important clues that help physicians and other health-care professionals make a diagnosis. Many times, however, the symptoms point to several possible disorders. In those cases, doctors rely on medical tests, such as blood examinations and X rays, to confirm the diagnosis.

The course of a disease—that is, the path it follows from onset to end—can vary tremendously, depending largely on the individual and the treatment he or she receives. For example, otherwise healthy people usually recover quickly from a bout of pneumonia if given proper treatment, whereas pneumonia often proves fatal to people with a weakened immune system and to those who do not receive prompt, effective treatment. Some diseases run a different course depending on the patient’s age. Chicken pox, for instance, is usually mild in childhood but severe in adults. In the United States, only about 5 percent of chicken pox cases occur in people over the age of 20, but these cases account for 50 percent of all deaths from the disease.

Scientists, public health officials, and other members of the medical community work diligently to try to prevent disease epidemics. The battle is constant and is fought on many fronts. There have been many victories. Once-devastating diseases such as smallpox and diphtheria have been virtually eradicated, and many other diseases that once conferred automatic death sentences can now be either cured or controlled. At the same time, however, new killers have emerged. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, and avian flu are among at least 30 diseases that have been identified by scientists since the early 1970s. Other growing challenges, particularly in the affluent societies of industrialized nations, are so-called diseases of choice, such as alcohol abuse, drug abuse, or obesity, that result from addictive behavior, poor eating habits, or insufficient exercise.

Complicating matters further are societal changes. Increased international travel accelerates the spread of both new and old diseases: A person infected with an unusual virus on one continent can arrive—with the virus—on another continent in a matter of hours. Ships, planes, and trucks can transport disease-carrying organisms just as easily. In 1985 tires imported into Texas from Asia carried larvae of the Asian tiger mosquito, which is a carrier of dengue fever and other tropical diseases. Within five years, Asian tiger mosquitoes were living in 17 states. Changing dietary habits and the availability in local supermarkets of foods from all parts of the world contribute to an increase in food-borne illnesses. Some researchers worry that growing populations and the resulting crowded living conditions will increase the risk of epidemics.

 

Child Marriage

Child Marriage: 

Child Marriage: Inspite of the Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929, there has been widespread prevalence of child marriage, specially in Rajasthan. It is fell, thus, that the Act needs amendment to make the offence cognisable and non-bailable. To sensitise public and facilitate reporting on incidents of child marriage, it is important that executive powers and other responsibilites be decentralised. The powers in this connection should be devolved to NGOs and other responsible persons at Panchayat and village level in order to prevent cnild marriage. There should be greater sirnss on prevention of child marriage, rather than on its annulment. Compulsory registration of marriage could also ret as an impediment to child marriage.

FIRST SCHEDULE

THERE ARE 12 SCHEDULE IN INDIAN COSTITUTION 

  FIRST SCHEDULE
 [Articles 1 and 4]
 I. The States
II. The Union Territories
India is a federal union of states comprising twenty-eight states and seven union territories. The states and territories are further subdivided into districts and so on.
In 2000 three new states were created; Chhattisgarh (1 November 2000) was created out of eastern Madhya Pradesh, Uttaranchal (9 November 2000), since renamed Uttarakhand, was created out of the Hilly regions of northwest Uttar Pradesh, and Jharkhand (15 November 2000) was created out of the southern districts of Bihar^, The Union Territories of Delhi and Puducherry have since been given the right to elect their own legislatures and they are now counted as small states

Name Territories

1. Andhra Pradesh The territories specified in sub-section (1) of section 3 of the Andhra State Act, 1953, sub-section (1) of section 3 of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, the First Schedule to the Andhra Pradesh and Madras (Alteration of Boundaries) Act, 1959, and the Schedule to the Andhra Pradesh and Mysore (Transfer of Territory) Act, 1968, but excluding the territories specified in the Second Schedule to the Andhra Pradesh and Madras (Alteration of Boundaries) Act, 1959.

2. Assam The territories which immediately before the commencement of this Constitution were comprised in the Province of Assam, the Khasi States and the Assam Tribal Areas, but excluding the territories specified in the Schedule to the Assam (Alteration of Boundaries) Act, 1951, and the territories specified in sub-section (1) of section 3 of the State of Nagaland Act, 1962 and the territories specified in sections 5, 6 and 7 of the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971.

3. Bihar The territories which immediately before the commencement of this Constitution were either comprised in the Province of Bihar or were being administered as if they formed part of that Province and the territories specified in clause (1) of sub-section (1) of section 3 of the Bihar and Uttar Pradesh (Alteration of Boundaries) Act, 1968, but excluding the territories specified in sub-section (1) of section 3 of the Bihar and West Bengal (Transfer of Territories) Act, 1956, and the territories specified in clause (b) of sub-section (1) of section 3 of the first mentioned Act.

4. Gujarat The territories referred to in sub-section (1) of section 3 of the Bombay Reorganisation Act, 1960.

5. Kerala The territories specified in sub-section (1) of section 5 of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956.

6. Madhya Pradesh The territories specified in sub-section (1) of section 9 of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956 and the First Schedule to the Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh (Transfer of Territories) Act, 1959.

7. Tamil Nadu The territories which immediately before the commencement of this Constitution were either comprised in the Province of Madras or were being administered as if they formed part of that Province and the territories specified in section 4 of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, and the Second Schedule to the Andhra Pradesh and Madras (Alteration of Boundaries) Act, 1959 but excluding the territories specified in sub-section (1) of section 3 and sub-section (1) of section 4 of the Andhra State Act, 1953 and the territories specified in clause (b) of sub-section (1) of section 5, section 6 and clause (d) of sub-section (1) of section 7 of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956 and the territories specified in the First Schedule to the Andhra Pradesh and Madras (Alteration of Boundaries) Act, 1959.

8. Maharashtra The territories specified in sub-section (1) of section 8 of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, but excluding the territories referred to in sub-section (1) of section 3 of the Bombay Reorganisation Act, 1960.

9. Karnataka The territories specified in sub-section (1) of section 7 of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956 but excluding the territory specified in the Schedule to the Andhra Pradesh and Mysore (Transfer of Territory) Act, 1968

10. Orissa The territories which immediately before the commencement of this Constitution were either comprised in the Province of Orissa or were being administered as if they formed part of that Province.

11. Punjab The territories specified in section 11 of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956 and the territories referred to in Part II of the First Schedule to the Acquired Territories (Merger) Act, 1960 but excluding the territories referred to in Part II of the First Schedule to the Constitution (Ninth Amendment) Act, 1960 and the territories specified in sub-section (1) of section 3, section 4 and sub-section (1) of section 5 of the Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966.

12. Rajasthan The territories specified in section 10 of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956 but excluding the territories specified in the First Schedule to the Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh (Transfer of Territories) Act, 1959.

13. Uttar Pradesh The territories which immediately before the commencement of this Constitution were either comprised in the Province known as the United Provinces or were being administered as if they formed part of that Province, the territories specified in clause (b) of sub-section (1) of section 3 of the Bihar and Uttar Pradesh (Alteration of Boundaries) Act, 1968, and the territories specified in clause (b) of sub-section (1) of section 4 of the Haryana and Uttar Pradesh (Alteration of Boundaries) Act, 1979, but excluding the territories specified in clause (a) of sub-section (1) of section 3 of the Bihar and Uttar Pradesh (Alteration of Boundaries) Act, 1968, and the territories specified in clause (a) of sub-section (1) of section 4 of the Haryana and Uttar Pradesh (Alteration of Boundaries) Act, 1979.

14. West Bengal The territories which immediately before the commencement of this Constitution were either comprised in the Province of West Bengal or were being administered as if they formed part of that Province in the territory of Chandernagore as defined in clause (c) of section 2 of the Chandernagore (Merger) Act, 1954, and also the territories specified in sub-section (1) of section 3 of the Bihar and West Bengal (Transfer of Territories) Act, 1956.

15. Jammu and The territory which immediately before the commencement of this Constitution are comprised in the Indian State of Jammu and Kashmir .

16. Nagaland The territories specified in sub-section (1) of section 3 of the State of Nagaland Act , 1962.

17. Haryana The territories specified in sub-section (1) of section 3 of the Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966 and the territories specified in clause (a) of sub-section (1) of section 4 of the Haryana and Uttar Pradesh (Alteration of Boundaries) Act, 1979, but excluding the territories specified in clause (b) of sub-section (1) of section 4 of that Act.

18. Himachal Pradesh The territories which immediately before the commencement of this Constitution were being administered as if they were Chief Commissioners’ Provinces under the names of Himachal Pradesh and Bilaspur and the Territories specified in sub-section (1) of section 5 of the Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966.

19. Manipur The territory which immediately before the commencement of this Constitution was being administered as if it were a Chief Commissioner’s Province under the name of Manipur.

20. Tripura The territory which immediately before the commencement of this Constitution was being administered as if it were a Chief Commissioner’s Province under the name of Tripura.

21. Meghalaya The territories specified in section 5 of the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971.

22. Sikkim The territories which immediately before the commencement of the Constitution (Thirty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1975, were comprised in Sikkim .

23. Mizoram The territories specified in section 6 of the North Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971.

24. Arunachal Pradesh The territories specified in section 7 of the North Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971.

25. Goa The territories specified in section 3 of the Goa, Daman and Diu Reorganisation Act, 1987.

II. THE UNION TERRITORIES

1. Delhi The territory which immediately before the commencement of this Constitution was comprised in the Chief Commissioner’s Province of Delhi.

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2. The Andaman and The territory which immediately before the commencement of this Constitution was comprised in the Chief Commissioner’s Province of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands .

3. Lakshadweep The territory specified in section 6 of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956.

4. Dadra and Nagar The territory which immediately before the eleventh day of August, 1961 was comprised in Free Dadra and Nagar Haveli..

5. Daman and Diu The territories specified in section 4 of the Goa, Daman and Diu Reorganisation Act, 1987.

6. Pondicherry The territories which immediately before the sixteenth day of August, 1962, were comprised in the French Establishments in India known as Pondicherry, Karikal, Mahe and Yanam.

7. Chandigarh The territories specified in section 4 of the Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966.